beginner

For gcc and clang users: Add -Wall -Wextra to your compilation flags. Other useful options include: -Werror: treats warnings as if they were errors -pedantic: generates warnings if you use any language extensions -Wno-x: disables warning x, e.g if the compiler gives you a -Wunused-variable warning, you can turn it off with -Wno-unused-variable (Note that, contrary to what the name -Wall may imply, this does not enable all warnings, but it does enable most of the important ones....

Include guards, or sometimes called macro guards, header guards, or file guards are a common C/C++ idiom that allows including a header file multiple times safely. The non-standard preprocessor directive #pragma once is an almost equivalent alternative to this idiom. The Problem The preprocessor directive #include effectively copies the named header into our source file. If we #include a header file more than once, this will result in redefinitions and possibly compiler errors....

Unlike undefined behavior, unspecified and implementation-defined behavior occur all the time in a normal C++ program. Making use of unspecified/implementation-defined behavior is unavoidable, but relying on specific behavior can be fatal. The C++ standard does not specify what happens in every scenario, so the implementation has the freedom to implement behavior, constants, macro definitions, and more in multiple possible ways. Unspecified Behavior unspecified by the standard is not necessary to document, but still valid....

Fixed-width integers are integral types with a fixed number of bits. The C++ standard only specifies a minimum byte count for types such as short, int and long. Fixed-width integers guarantee a specific size, but their use can have an impact on portability, since they are not supported by all platforms. Fixed-width integer types These can be used by including <cstdint>. The intX_t types are signed integers with exactly X bits....

Undefined Behaviour (also known as UB) occurs when you violate certain language rules. These rules include (but are not limited to): dereferencing a null pointer, signed integer overflow, accessing through a dangling reference, or accessing through an unaligned pointer. When undefined behaviour occurs, the C and C++ standards do not place any restrictions on what your program might do. In other words, your program may crash, or continue execution, or call some seemingly unrelated piece of code, or print 42 and open xkcd in your web browser....

Constructors in C++ are used to initialize the data members of a class. First, it’s important to understand the terminology: struct wrapper { int value; wrapper(int v) : value{v} { } }; Our class wrapper has a constructor, consisting of four parts: the class name wrapper the parameter list int v in parentheses the member initializer list value{v}, separated by a : from the parameter list the constructor body {}, which is empty in this case In most other languages that have classes and constructors, the initialization simply takes place in the constructor body....

Consider this code: #include <iostream>#include <algorithm> using namespace std; int swap = 0; int main() { cout << swap << endl; // ERROR: reference to "swap" is ambiguous } Here, the compiler throws an error because it doesn’t know whether you refer to your swap global variable, or the std::swap function inside the <algorithm> header. That is to say, using namespace is considered bad practice because it leads to name collisions, and it also makes your code less clear....